Social construction of sexuality Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Social construction of sexuality - Assignment Example These aspects include the roles of each person, their health needs, and limitations, and the responsibilities that the society bestows on them. Gender and the related binaries have been constructed by the society. The issues of being a male or a female, masculine or feminine, heterosexual or homosexual, man or woman and others that are related to sexuality as we understand them today have a connotation in the society’s construction of gender. To be male or female, may be seen as a biological aspect of the human being. However, being male and female as seen from the society point of view is largely dependent on the society in question. For instance, competing in athletics calls for more than the physical aspects of being male or female. Reports have shown that there is more to being male or female than having the physical and observable features of the specific sex. A case of Patino, a Spanish Olympic athlete is a clear example. The athlete was denied a chance to participate in the events. Despite the fact, that she was physically female, her cells on examination showed that she had a Y chromosomes, typical for a male (Crozier, 292-294). The issues of sexuality, as we know them today, can, therefore, be said to be directly related to how the society construct and explain being male or female. Homosexuality and heterosexuality are a rather new aspect of sexuality. The emergence of these concepts and how we understand and perceive them today can be related to the political, socioeconomic, medical, colonial expansions and scientific development of the nineteenth century and even more recently. The modernity that science and the rest of the factors seem to support purportedly brought about the prevalence. In the earlier years, sexuality and sexual activities were directly related to male and female relationship. However, when the colonial expansion, militarization and

What were the chief charactistics of the Renaissance Consider Essay

What were the chief charactistics of the Renaissance Consider artistic, intellectual and civic innovations - Essay Example Art styles such as naturalism was developed by the Greeks which involved painting the human body in the nude. Oil paint was invented. Other artists such as Donatello worked using marble and bronze. Ceramic clay was also used. Artists such as Raphael, Michelangelo, and da Vinci emerged in the late 1400’s and early 1500’s. One of the famous paintings of the time was the Mona Lisa. Northern Renaissance painters such as Jan Van Eyck also emerged. Eyck invented the oil glazing technique. This technique replaced the egg-tempera which was used earlier. Innovations were also made in the field of science. Nicolas Copernicus made an attempt to prove that the sun was at the center of the solar system and not the earth. It was this theory by Copernicus that led to other discoveries such as those of Galileo, Kepler and Newton. This was the most important discovery made during the Renaissance. Humanism can be defined as the general idea that man is uniquely different from other types of beings and as such can develop his own culture. It involved the urge to know more about the heritages of Rome and Greece. People were of the belief that a lot could be learnt from the past. One of the most renowned humanists was Niccolo Machiavelli who brought about new ideas of conducting politics. Humanism advocated for a change in how things were done. It encouraged a shift from a contemplative way of life to an active life. In general, the renaissance period brought about a new age and a new way of conducting activities. It was the birth of a new school of thought and a new breed of artists, philosophers and scientists. It brought about the momentum that spurred further

Isopropyl Alcohol Can Be Oxidized Environmental Sciences Essay

Isopropyl Alcohol Can Be Oxidized Environmental Sciences Essay Being a secondary alcohol, isopropyl alcohol can be oxidized to acetone, which is the corresponding ketone. This can be achieved using oxidizing agents such as chromic acid, or by dehydrogenation of isopropyl alcohol over a heated copper catalyst: (CH3)2CHOH ? (CH3)2CO + H2 Isopropyl alcohol is often used as both solvent and hydride source in the Meerwein-Ponndorf-Verley reduction and other transfer hydrogenation reactions; it is oxidized to acetone. Isopropyl alcohol may be converted to 2-bromopropane using phosphorus tribromide, or dehydrated to propene by heating with sulfuric acid. Like most alcohols, isopropyl alcohol reacts with active metals such as potassium to form alkoxides which can be called isopropoxides. The reaction with aluminium (initiated by a trace of mercury) is used to prepare the catalyst aluminium isopropoxide.[3] Isopropanol becomes increasingly viscous with decreasing temperature. At temperatures below -70C isopropanol resembles maple syrup in viscosity. [edit]Production In 1994, 1.5 million tonnes of isopropyl alcohol was produced in the United States, Europe, and Japan.[4] This compound is primarily produced by combining water and propene in a hydration reaction. Of minor significance is the hydrogenation of acetone.[4][5] There are two routes for the hydration process: indirect hydration via the sulfuric acid process, and direct hydration. The former process, which can use low-quality propene, predominates in the USA while the latter process, which requires high-purity propene, is more commonly used in Europe. These processes give predominantly isopropyl alcohol rather than 1-propanol because the addition of water or sulfuric acid to propene follows Markovnikovs rule. Indirect hydration The indirect process reacts propene with sulfuric acid to form a mixture of sulfate esters. Subsequent hydrolysis of these esters by steam produces isopropyl alcohol, which is distilled. Diisopropyl ether is a significant by-product of this process; it is recycled back to the process and hydrolyzed to give the desired product.[4] Direct hydration Direct hydration reacts propene and water, either in gas or liquid phases, at high pressures in the presence of solid or supported acidic catalysts. Higher purity propylene (> 90 %) tends to be required for this type of process.[4] Both processes require that the isopropyl alcohol be separated from water and other by-products by distillation. Isopropyl alcohol and water form an azeotrope and simple distillation gives a material which is 87.9% by weight isopropyl alcohol and 12.1% by weight water.[6] Pure (anhydrous) isopropyl alcohol is made by azeotropic distillation of the wet isopropyl alcohol using either diisopropyl ether or cyclohexane as azeotroping agents.[4] Hydrogenation of acetone Crude acetone is hydrogenated in the liquid phase over Raney nickel or a mixture of copper and chromium oxide to give isopropyl alcohol. This process is useful when coupled with excess acetone production, such as the cumene process.[4] [edit]Uses In 1990, 45 thousand tonnes of isopropyl alcohol were used in the United States. The vast majority of isopropyl alcohol was used as a solvent for coatings or for industrial processes. Isopropyl alcohol in particular is popular for pharmaceutical applications,[4] presumably due to the low toxicity of any residues. Some isopropyl alcohol is used as a chemical intermediate. Isopropyl alcohol may be converted to acetone, but the cumene process is more significant. In that year, a significant fraction (5.4 tonnes) was consumed for household use and in personal care products. It is also used as a gasoline additive.[4] [edit]Solvent Isopropyl alcohol dissolves a wide range of non-polar compounds. It also evaporates quickly and is relatively non-toxic, compared to alternative solvents. Thus it is used widely as a solvent and as a cleaning fluid, especially for dissolving oils. Examples of this application include cleaning electronic devices such as contact pins (like those on ROM cartridges), magnetic tape and disk heads (such as those in audio and video tape recorders and floppy disk drives), the lenses of lasers in optical disc drives (e.g. CD, DVD) and removing thermal paste from heatsinks and IC packages (such as CPUs.[7]) Isopropyl alcohol is used in keyboard, LCD and laptop cleaning, is sold commercially as a whiteboard cleaner, and is a strong but safer alternative to common household cleaning products. It is used to clean LCD and glass computer monitor screens (at some risk to the anti-reflection coating on some screens[citation needed]), and used to give second-hand or worn non-vinyl phonograph records newer-looking sheen. Isopropyl alcohol should not be used to clean vinyl records as it may leach plasticizer from the vinyl making it more rigid[citation needed]. It is effective at removing residual glue from some sticky labels although some other adhesives used on tapes and paper labels are resistant to it. It can also be used to remove stains from most fabrics, wood, cotton, etc. In addition it can also be used to clean paintballs or other oil based products so that they may be reused, commonly known as repainting. It is used as a wetting agent in the fountain solution used in lithographic printing, and often used as a solvent for French polishing shellac used in cabinet making. [edit]Intermediate Isopropyl alcohol is esterified to give isopropyl acetate, another solvent. It reacts with carbon disulfide to give sodium isopropylxanthate, a weed killer. Isopropyl alcohol reacts with titanium tetrachloride and aluminium metal to give titanium and aluminium isopropoxides respectively, the former a catalyst, and the latter a chemical reagent.[4] This compound may serve as a chemical reagent in itself, by acting as a dihydrogen donor in transfer hydrogenation. [edit]Medical Disinfecting pads typically contain a 60ÃÆ' ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½70% solution of isopropyl alcohol in water. A 75 % v/v solution in water may be used as a hand sanitizer.[8] Isopropyl alcohol is used as a water-drying aid for the prevention of otitis externa, better known as swimmers ear.[9] [edit]Automotive Isopropyl alcohol is a major ingredient in gas dryer fuel additives. In significant quantities, water is a problem in fuel tanks, as it separates from the gasoline, and can freeze in the supply lines at cold temperatures. It does not remove water from gasoline; rather, the alcohol solubilizes water in gasoline. Once soluble, water does not pose the same risk as insoluble water as it will no longer accumulate in the supply lines and freeze. Isopropyl alcohol is often sold in aerosol cans as a windscreen de-icer. Isopropyl alcohol is also used to remove brake fluid traces from hydraulic braking systems, so that the brake fluid (usually DOT 3, DOT 4 or mineral oil) does not contaminate the brake pads, which would result in poor braking. [edit]Laboratory As a biological specimen preservative, isopropyl alcohol provides a comparatively non-toxic alternative to formaldehyde and other synthetic preservatives. Isopropyl alcohol solutions of 90ÃÆ' ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½99% are used to preserve specimens. Isopropyl alcohol is often used in DNA extraction. It is added to a DNA solution in order to precipitate the DNA into a pellet after centrifuging the DNA. This is possible because DNA is insoluble in isopropyl alcohol. [edit]Safety Isopropyl alcohol vapor is denser than air and is highly flammable with a very wide combustible range. It should be kept away from heat and open flame. When mixed with air or other oxidizers it can explode through deflagration.[10] Isopropyl alcohol has also been reported to form explosive peroxides.[10][11] Like many organic solvents, long term application to the skin can cause defatting.[12] [edit]Toxicology Isopropyl alcohol and its metabolite, acetone, act as central nervous system (CNS) depressants. Symptoms of isopropyl alcohol poisoning include flushing, headache, dizziness, CNS depression, nausea, vomiting, anesthesia, and coma. Poisoning can occur from ingestion, inhalation, or absorption; therefore, well-ventilated areas and protective gloves are recommended. Around 15 g of isopropyl alcohol can have a toxic effect on a 70 kg human if left untreated.[13] However, it is not nearly as toxic as methanol or ethylene glycol. Isopropyl alcohol does not cause an anion gap acidosis (in which as lowered blood serum pH causes depletion of bicarbonate anion) unlike ethanol and methanol. Isopropyl alcohol does however, produce an osmolal gap between the calculated and measured osmolalities of serum, as do the other alcohols. Overdoses may cause a fruity odor on the breath as a result of its metabolism to acetone, which is further metabolized to produce the nutrients acetate and glucose.[14] Isopropyl alcohol is oxidized to form acetone by alcohol dehydrogenase in the liver.

America Needs Cloning Essay -- Argumentative Persuasive Science Essays

For many years, animals have been used to facilitate the testing of new procedures, drugs, and quest for information. Now as we enter the 21st century, humanity has created computer prediction models, tissue cloning, and great understanding of chemical reactions. However most of these new methods still are only sparingly used, despite their accuracy, and animal testing still remains the test method of choice. There's a newly developed technology that can allow doctors and scientists to duplicate living organisms. This development in technology is known as cloning, and it has forever changed the views of life. Cloning can serve as the answer to problems which plaque the human, animal, and plant populations. Any living species can now be artificially created through cloning. This could potentially eliminate the possibility of extinction among many species. Cloning creates the possibility of having a twin or child carrying the exact DNA of another person. The reproduction of animals wou ld ensure the lasting life of all species, and produce an abundant amount of food to feed the people of the world. Even the vegetarians of the world would be happy with the amount of vegetation that could be produced. Cloning is the perfect means of improving the quality of human life on this planet. Cloning is a very controversial topic and will be for many years to come. In February 1997, scientists in Scotland announced the birth of Dolly, the first cloned sheep. This heralded the future of further cloning possibilities and scientists began extensive experiments on cloning, and have since cloned both plants and animals successfully. The next step was to clone actual human beings but before experiments could be carried out, pressure started to build on the scientists because people started to doubt if cloning was ethical and morally correct. The government began to ban and impose constraints on cloning as a result of public pressure. After the cloning of Dolly, President Clinton was quick to cut all federal funding for research of human cloning (Lester & Hefley, 123). In December of 2001, the United Kingdom put a ban on human reproductive cloning but not therapeutic cloning (Seppa, 32). Even though cloning raises some difficult ethical issues, there are many aspects of cloning that will be very beneficial to mankind.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  If the experimentation of cloning continues in t... ... in a number of various ways to benefit the lives of Americans. This new scientific techniques can be used to improve the quality of life and bring balance to the ecosystem. It could very well be inevitable that cloning play an important, if not vital, role in American lives. Society may be forced to accept these possibilities and lift some of the constraints off the experimentation of cloning. More research needs to be carried out to help eliminate any possible risks associated with the newly discovered procedure. Cloning doesn?t necessarily have to have a negative impact on the world. Cloning is a very beneficial technique to improve the quality of life, why not use the scientific breakthrough to the best of the world?s abilities. Cloning is the future. Works Cited Andrews, Dr. L. (1999). The Clone Age. New York, NY: Henry Holt and Company, Inc. Lester, L., Hefley, J. (1998). Human Cloning. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House Company. Pence, G. (1998). Who?s Afraid of Human Cloning? Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. Seppa, N. (2002, January). Forbidden Tests. Science News, 53. Travis, Dr. J. (2001, October). Dolly Was Lucky. Science News, 250-251. America Needs Cloning Essay -- Argumentative Persuasive Science Essays For many years, animals have been used to facilitate the testing of new procedures, drugs, and quest for information. Now as we enter the 21st century, humanity has created computer prediction models, tissue cloning, and great understanding of chemical reactions. However most of these new methods still are only sparingly used, despite their accuracy, and animal testing still remains the test method of choice. There's a newly developed technology that can allow doctors and scientists to duplicate living organisms. This development in technology is known as cloning, and it has forever changed the views of life. Cloning can serve as the answer to problems which plaque the human, animal, and plant populations. Any living species can now be artificially created through cloning. This could potentially eliminate the possibility of extinction among many species. Cloning creates the possibility of having a twin or child carrying the exact DNA of another person. The reproduction of animals wou ld ensure the lasting life of all species, and produce an abundant amount of food to feed the people of the world. Even the vegetarians of the world would be happy with the amount of vegetation that could be produced. Cloning is the perfect means of improving the quality of human life on this planet. Cloning is a very controversial topic and will be for many years to come. In February 1997, scientists in Scotland announced the birth of Dolly, the first cloned sheep. This heralded the future of further cloning possibilities and scientists began extensive experiments on cloning, and have since cloned both plants and animals successfully. The next step was to clone actual human beings but before experiments could be carried out, pressure started to build on the scientists because people started to doubt if cloning was ethical and morally correct. The government began to ban and impose constraints on cloning as a result of public pressure. After the cloning of Dolly, President Clinton was quick to cut all federal funding for research of human cloning (Lester & Hefley, 123). In December of 2001, the United Kingdom put a ban on human reproductive cloning but not therapeutic cloning (Seppa, 32). Even though cloning raises some difficult ethical issues, there are many aspects of cloning that will be very beneficial to mankind.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  If the experimentation of cloning continues in t... ... in a number of various ways to benefit the lives of Americans. This new scientific techniques can be used to improve the quality of life and bring balance to the ecosystem. It could very well be inevitable that cloning play an important, if not vital, role in American lives. Society may be forced to accept these possibilities and lift some of the constraints off the experimentation of cloning. More research needs to be carried out to help eliminate any possible risks associated with the newly discovered procedure. Cloning doesn?t necessarily have to have a negative impact on the world. Cloning is a very beneficial technique to improve the quality of life, why not use the scientific breakthrough to the best of the world?s abilities. Cloning is the future. Works Cited Andrews, Dr. L. (1999). The Clone Age. New York, NY: Henry Holt and Company, Inc. Lester, L., Hefley, J. (1998). Human Cloning. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House Company. Pence, G. (1998). Who?s Afraid of Human Cloning? Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. Seppa, N. (2002, January). Forbidden Tests. Science News, 53. Travis, Dr. J. (2001, October). Dolly Was Lucky. Science News, 250-251.

Save the Earth Essay

Good Morning, today I xxxx am here to talk to you about ‘’The Earth† Let me begin by a famous quote- â€Å" The Earth provides enough to satisfy every man’s needs, but not every man’s greed.† ― Mahatma Gandhi The urgent message is â€Å"Save the Earth†. It’s a message that has been heard before and consistently being spread throughout the world. In this time that I have to talk to you, I want to show to you, how deep a mess we are in, with environmental crisis and how we can get out of it. It warns us about the catastrophic changes in Earth’s ecosystem as the consequence of global warming. Drought, Famine, Severe flooding, Record rainfall, Hurricanes, Tornadoes, Forest Fires, Acid rain: this is the result of being ignorant and not caring for our mother earth. Our planet looks like it’s infected with a disease. We turned this once-vibrant planet into a toxic, treeless, lifeless, and overheated trash site. The urgent message is â€Å"Save the Earth†. It’s a message that has been heard before and consistently being spread throughout the world. In this time that I have to talk to you, I want to show to you, how deep a mess we are in, with environmental crisis and how we can get out of it. It warns us about the catastrophic changes in Earth’s ecosystem as the consequence of global warming. Drought, Famine, Severe flooding, Record rainfall, Hurricanes, Tornadoes, Forest Fires, Acid rain: this is the result of being ignorant and not caring for our mother earth. Our planet looks like it’s infected with a disease. We turned this once-vibrant planet into a toxic, treeless, lifeless, and overheated trash site. Good Morning, today I xxxx am here to talk to you about ‘’The Earth† Let me begin by a famous quote- â€Å" The Earth provides enough to satisfy every man’s needs, but not every man’s greed.† ― Mahatma Gandhi The urgent message is â€Å"Save the Earth†. It’s a message that has been heard before and consistently being spread throughout the world. In this time that I have to talk to you, I want to show to you, how deep a mess we are in, with environmental crisis and how we can get out of it. It warns us about the catastrophic changes in Earth’s ecosystem as the consequence of global warming. Drought, Famine, Severe flooding, Record rainfall, Hurricanes, Tornadoes, Forest Fires, Acid rain: this is the result of being ignorant and not caring for our mother earth. Our planet looks like it’s infected with a disease. We turned this once-vibrant planet into a toxic, treeless, lifeless, and overheated trash site. The urgent message is â€Å"Save the Earth†. It’s a message that has been heard before and consistently being spread throughout the world. In this time that I have to talk to you, I want to show to you, how deep a mess we are in, with environmental crisis and how we can get out of it. It warns us about the catastrophic changes in Earth’s ecosystem as the consequence of global warming. Drought, Famine, Severe flooding, Record rainfall, Hurricanes, Tornadoes, Forest Fires, Acid rain: this is the result of being ignorant and not caring for our mother earth. Our planet looks like it’s infected with a disease. We turned this once-vibrant planet into a toxic, treeless, lifeless, and overheated trash site. Good Morning, today I xxxx am here to talk to you about ‘’The Earth† Let me begin by a famous quote- â€Å" The Earth provides enough to satisfy every man’s needs, but not every man’s greed.† ― Mahatma Gandhi The urgent message is â€Å"Save the Earth†. It’s a message that has been heard before and consistently being spread throughout the world. In this time that I have to talk to you, I want to show to you, how deep a mess we are in, with environmental crisis and how we can get out of it. It warns us about the catastrophic changes in Earth’s ecosystem as the consequence of global warming. Drought, Famine, Severe flooding, Record rainfall, Hurricanes, Tornadoes, Forest Fires, Acid rain: this is the result of being ignorant and not caring for our mother earth. Our planet looks like it’s infected with a disease. We turned this once-vibrant planet into a toxic, treeless, lifeless, and overheated trash site. The urgent message is â€Å"Save the Earth†. It’s a message that has been heard before and consistently being spread throughout the world. In this time that I have to talk to you, I want to show to you, how deep a mess we are in, with environmental crisis and how we can get out of it. It warns us about the catastrophic changes in Earth’s ecosystem as the consequence of global warming. Drought, Famine, Severe flooding, Record rainfall, Hurricanes, Tornadoes, Forest Fires, Acid rain: this is the result of being ignorant and not caring for our mother earth. Our planet looks like it’s infected with a disease. We turned this once-vibrant planet into a toxic, treeless, lifeless, and overheated trash site. Good Morning, today I xxxx am here to talk to you about ‘’The Earth† Let me begin by a famous quote- â€Å" The Earth provides enough to satisfy every man’s needs, but not every man’s greed.† ― Mahatma Gandhi The urgent message is â€Å"Save the Earth†. It’s a message that has been heard before and consistently being spread throughout the world. In this time that I have to talk to you, I want to show to you, how deep a mess we are in, with environmental crisis and how we can get out of it. It warns us about the catastrophic changes in Earth’s ecosystem as the consequence of global warming. Drought, Famine, Severe flooding, Record rainfall, Hurricanes, Tornadoes, Forest Fires, Acid rain: this is the result of being ignorant and not caring for our mother earth. Our planet looks like it’s infected with a disease. We turned this once-vibrant planet into a toxic, treeless, lifeless, and overheated trash site. The urgent message is â€Å"Save the Earth†. It’s a message that has been heard before and consistently being spread throughout the world. In this time that I have to talk to you, I want to show to you, how deep a mess we are in, with environmental crisis and how we can get out of it. It warns us about the catastrophic changes in Earth’s ecosystem as the consequence of global warming. Drought, Famine, Severe flooding, Record rainfall, Hurricanes, Tornadoes, Forest Fires, Acid rain: this is the result of being ignorant and not caring for our mother earth. Our planet looks like it’s infected with a disease. We turned this once-vibrant planet into a toxic, treeless, lifeless, and overheated trash site. Good Morning, today I xxxx am here to talk to you about ‘’The Earth† Let me begin by a famous quote- â€Å" The Earth provides enough to satisfy every man’s needs, but not every man’s greed.† ― Mahatma Gandhi The urgent message is â€Å"Save the Earth†. It’s a message that has been heard before and consistently being spread throughout the world. In this time that I have to talk to you, I want to show to you, how deep a mess we are in, with environmental crisis and how we can get out of it. It warns us about the catastrophic changes in Earth’s ecosystem as the consequence of global warming. Drought, Famine, Severe flooding, Record rainfall, Hurricanes, Tornadoes, Forest Fires, Acid rain: this is the result of being ignorant and not caring for our mother earth. Our planet looks like it’s infected with a disease. We turned this once-vibrant planet into a toxic, treeless, lifeless, and overheated trash site. The urgent message is â€Å"Save the Earth†. It’s a message that has been heard before and consistently being spread throughout the world. In this time that I have to talk to you, I want to show to you, how deep a mess we are in, with environmental crisis and how we can get out of it. It warns us about the catastrophic changes in Earth’s ecosystem as the consequence of global warming. Drought, Famine, Severe flooding, Record rainfall, Hurricanes, Tornadoes, Forest Fires, Acid rain: this is the result of being ignorant and not caring for our mother earth. Our planet looks like it’s infected with a disease. We turned this once-vibrant planet into a toxic, treeless, lifeless, and overheated trash site.

A study of the psychology of belief with reference to the influence of Freud

For many people, religion has been a pillar of our society for as long as we can trace back. A psychologist however, would argue that religion developed from the day that the people of our society started questioning their existence. As Sigmund Freud, physiologist, doctor, psychologist and the father of psychoanalysis, is generally recognised as one of the most influential and authoritative thinkers of the twentieth century, we need to consider his analysis of religion when approaching this topic. However as some of Freud's theories were developed over a century ago is it really possible to apply them to our society today, especially as our society is so multicultural and faith still holds a key role within many people's lives? According to Sigmund Freud religion is an â€Å"illusion† we as a society or as individuals, conjure up for ourselves, for a number of key reasons. The first and most essential reason Freud claims we turn to religion is as a way of expressing psychological anguish from our childhood. The second is we turn to religion as a way of overcoming and preventing dangers from the natural world, in hoping to gain control â€Å"the necessity of defending oneself against the crushingly superior force of nature. † The third is that religion is used as a stress relief, stress that has developed from living in a suppressive society that condones the expression of sexual desire. A final key reason Freud developed is that we follow religion to prevent the feeling of helplessness we can get when we no longer have the protection of our parents or guardians: â€Å"And thus a store of ideas is created, born from man's need to make his helplessness tolerable and built up from the memories of the helplessness of his own childhood and the childhood of the human race† I shall address Freud's key idea to begin with: religion is a way of expressing psychological anguish. All of Freud's work is focused around the idea of our unconscious or our subconscious. Freud claimed that as children, any emotional torment we may suffer, instead of dealing with it directly at the time, we suppress it in our unconscious mind, only to channel it into another outlet later in life as an obsession or repulsion of any particular aspect of life. This is referred to as sublimation. One of the ways in which a person may choose to â€Å"channel† their negative experiences is through religion. This link was brought to Freud's attention as he began to notice similarities in his patients' obsessions in relation to the source of their compulsive behaviour as to that of a religious person and their faith. Both have a symbolic meaning to the follower and have a set ritual – failure to complete this ritual (however regular it may be) leads to guilty feelings of regret. Seeing this comparison Freud came to the conclusion that religion is another form of neurotic illness that stems from our unconscious. Freud then began to address the matter of what suppressed feelings from childhood actually were. It is through this thinking he developed the concept of the â€Å"Oedipus Complex â€Å". This suggests that as children, young boys hold loving feelings of a sexual nature for their mothers. Through this they develop feelings of envy and hatred for their fathers. Due to the society we live in the Oedipus complex has to be suppressed as it is not acceptable behaviour but the sexual urges, Freud claims, are still there. It is these urges that are pushed to our unconscious that later come out in obsession or infatuation with something – obviously in this case – religion. â€Å"Thus religion would be a universal obsessive neurosis of humankind. Just like the obsessive neurosis in children it springs from the Oedipus complex, the relationship with the Father† As mentioned before Freud made a direct link between psychological anguish and guilt and religion and guilt. Freud put forward a process that humans use to channel their guilt, particularly that of a sexual nature from the Oedipus/Electra complex. In an attempt to rid themselves of these feelings of guilt the person develops idols or Gods. By doing this they feel they can repent for their guilt by worship or sacrifice to these idols. Initially the idol may be a representation of the child's Father yet later on, in the same way the Father is rejected through Oedipus, the God is changed to an animal of a primal sort. The animal becomes sacred and inflicting harm upon the animal becomes a sin. Sacrifices are made to and worship becomes a ritual. This first stage of sublimation Freud labelled as animism. The second stage is, however, called religion. During this stage, the animal develops the status of a God and once again takes the form of the father figure thus completing the cycle from Oedipus to religion. As Freud said â€Å"I put forward a suggestion that mankind as a whole may have acquired its sense of guilt of its history, in connection with the Oedipus complex† Closely linked to this is the theory that religion is used as a â€Å"stress† relief, stress that is placed on us by the society we live in. The stress that is caused by the suppression of our natural urges as children. This stress forces us to channel our libido into other areas of thinking and working, areas in life that are more socially acceptable. As I explained previously it is common for this area to be religion and worship. Freud's second theory for religion is that we use religion as a way of protecting ourselves or overcoming fears from the natural world. The problem of evil and suffering and religion has long being a conflict for many philosophers and psychologists. It is through this conflict that â€Å"St. Augustine's Theodicy† was developed. St. Augustine based his arguments on the Bible and his theodicy suggests that God is perfect and created the world perfectly. Created things are susceptible to change and evil comes from angels and human beings that chose to turn away from God. Augustine concluded that God cannot be blamed for creating evil since evil is not a substance rather than a deprivation (a lack of good) and it is not logical to say God created that deprivation. Despite this theory and many others that have been presented to us since the problem of evil and suffering is what gives science a higher appeal than religion to many people living today but it is also, according to Freud why we invent religion in the first place. Religion offers us a â€Å"reward† for any suffering we may have inflicted upon us during our lifetime and adds meaning to life and its purpose. Otherwise we would be suffering unnecessarily and there would be no point to continue with life. Also through prayer and worship we feel we can control naturally occurring events that can cause us suffering such as death, illness, natural disasters etc. We do this in an attempt to abolish our fears of things we cannot control or change and hope to have some power over them through religion. Freud's next point is not dissimilar to the ideas of Karl Marx. Marxists would claim that religion is encouraged by the state to enforce order in society. Freud suggested a purpose for religion is that it is developed to give us a reason to obey authority. Regardless whether it is state authority or religious authority according to Freud people develop an attitude that â€Å"Everything in our world is an expression of the intentions of intelligence superior to us, which in the end, though its ways and byways are difficult to follow, orders everything for the best. We feel that if we disobey we shall not be rewarded, or worse punished for our crime or sin and we, by consequence, do not disobey. Freud came to the conclusion that religion must be overthrown for society to develop and progress. A final key reason Freud presents for humans fabricating religion is to prevent the feeling of helplessness we can get when we no longer have the protection of our parents or our guardians. This is simply that we develop â€Å"Gods† in order to protect ourselves, so we have someone to care for us and someone to look up to in the same way that we as children looked up to our parents. When Freud's theories were first published they were considered deeply controversial, interestingly though people took interest in what he said and took his psychoanalytical theory very seriously because at the time science was starting to make it's breakthrough and Freud's explanations were fresh and appealing to many. However whether theories that were developed over a century ago can still be relevant today is a different consideration. For Freud's work to still be relevant today, when science has developed further than psychology, which in comparison is considered the â€Å"soft science,† there would have to be some evidence to support the basics of Freud's theory. Freud based his â€Å"Oedipus Complex† on the ideas of Darwinism, a stage of life in prehistoric men when the family unit was the â€Å"primal horde†. It consisted of a mother a father and offspring. As the dominant male the father would scare off any male threat to the female. This continued until all the male offspring joined together and turned on the father and eventually killed him. The idea of religion stemming from guilt is not such a controversial one, particularly linking to sexual guilt and religion. Religious figures have often condemned sexual activity for the use of anything other than reproduction. Figures such as St. Augustine (who was greatly influenced by Plato) viewed sex and sexual desire as â€Å"having been implanted by the Devil at the time of the fall† as Peter Vardy explains Augustine claimed that it was best to avoid all sexual activity even within wedlock. If the situation should occur when sex was needed for reproduction then the man â€Å"should descend to his task with a certain regret. † Peter Vardy also outlines the common Catholic teaching which even today, in what we like to consider a sexually liberated society is still very traditional in it's approach, namely: – – Masturbation is sinful since this means using genitalia for a purpose for which they are not intended – Sex can never have pleasure or the expression of love as its main object since, again, this means using genitalia for a purpose for which they were not intended Homosexuality, if it is practised, is deeply sinful as this means using genitalia for a purpose for which they were not intended since procreation cannot result and it is â€Å"against nature† So considering people are still raised to believe sex for any other reason other than reproduction is sinful, it is easy to see why sexual feelings may lead to feelings of guilt. Particularly as sexual feelings are present throughout all stages of childhood that Freud identifies in the following ways: from birth to the age of eighteen months the child goes through what Freud named the â€Å"Oral Stage. This is to say all gratification of learning is gained through the mouth (feeding, chewing, sucking fingers etc. ) From eighteen months to three years the child progresses into the â€Å"Anal Stage† this normally happens when the child goes through potty training and often as a result develops fascination in anus and faeces. The period of time between three and six years of age was coined as the â€Å"Phallic Stage† and it's during this stage that the child develops features of the Oedipus complex (if male) or the Electra complex (if female). After the initial rush of feelings from the phallic stage have passed the child falls into the â€Å"Latent Stage† during which Freud claims there is no sexual development but this could be due to a suppression of the sexual feelings from the â€Å"Phallic stage. † The final stage of childhood according to Freud is the â€Å"Genital Stage† and depending on how the child's feelings from their younger years were dealt with, this is the time when sexual desire develops and is explored deeper. So if a child is raised to deny themselves the sexual feelings their body releases then they may begin to feel sinful or guilty for having these feelings in the first place. Therefore for Freud to find a link between sex, guilt and religion is not entirely controversial. This all acts as evidence towards Freud's theories and the relevance they hold in our society today. However, that said, there is plenty of reason why Freud's theories are not at all relevant to us in such a developed society. Freud has been criticised for focusing on the link between a father figure and a â€Å"God† in religions such as Judaism and, of course, Christianity. He fails to address eastern cultures and religions, which are based on worship of female idols or Goddesses,† such as the Egyptian Isis cult and Buddhism who have no one single object of worship. One of Freud's major critics, Bronislaw Malinowski, who went on to write a book called â€Å"Sex and Repression† disputed Freud's theory that religion develops from sexual guilt caused from the Oedipus complex. He points out for Oedipus to be a complex it needs to be universal. You cannot apply a complex such as Oedipus to matriarchal tribes in which the male is not dominant and takes the role of a nurse. Malinowski also brings to our attention the lack of evidence for â€Å"Oedipus† within the animal kingdom, as Darwinism only applies to early mankind. Also there is less evidence of â€Å"Oedipus† leading to religion in our society today as it is becoming increasingly secular and fewer people are turning to religion. This could suggest that the Oedipus complex does not occur, or if it does it does not have a link to religion. It is more likely, however, that all children still do go through the Oedipus complex but as our society is more sexually liberated people are allowed to express sexual desire in other ways rather than it becoming sublimated and channelled into religion. Another key criticism of the â€Å"Oedipus Complex† is the suggestion that religion is a cause of the complex rather than a result of it. If it was not for religion then, it is possible, these sexual urges would not have been suppressed at an early stage and a complex would not begin to develop. It could be just a possible that a child was made to feel guilty about the loving feelings towards his Mother and as a consequence developed a complex (Oedipus. ) Rather than the â€Å"Oedipus Complex† leading to religion. Another more general criticism is that even if religion is a cause or result of guilt, or fear it still works as a â€Å"Buffer† between the soul and reality. It is essential to society, as, music, art or literature as it is an expression of self and belief. Therefore it is not sound to suggest, as Freud did that religion must be overthrown. † Donald Winnicott essentially presented this criticism of Freud's work but is the popular feeling of many today. Psychology self – help book â€Å"Love is the Answer† presents the argument that some none – religious responses to misfortune of frustration e. g. Cynicism has actually been shown to be bad for physical health. So a â€Å"religious† view (of forgiving and repenting) might actually be health giving to us, and to dismiss it from our society would be to dismiss this positive outlook on life. So Freud's theory may have been apt for his society, a society built on religious structure, and some of his points may appear to justify the behaviour of people today. But I feel that in the twenty-first century when we are all encouraged to express our beliefs, ideas, sexuality and â€Å"bare our souls†, a theory based on suppression (even if it is unconscious) seems radical. I think religion itself has become more liberal and has resulted in many â€Å"branches† of Christianity all with a different strand of tradition. Some â€Å"branches† base their morals on the word of the Bible where as others feel that we have to â€Å"update† the word of God and adapt it to how we live today. To apply a theory from a century ago is to digress, in the same way technology has evolved, and our knowledge of our universe and surroundings have developed, we have to advance spiritually. We have to question what we already know, even if this means abandoning Freud's theories and all its implications.